Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins are organic nutrients that are essential for life. Our bodies need vitamins to function properly. We cannot produce most vitamins ourselves, at least not in sufficient quantities to meet our needs. Therefore, they have to be obtained through the food we eat.

A mineral is an element that originates in the Earth and always retains its chemical identity. Minerals occur as inorganic crystalline salts. Once minerals enter the body, they remain there until excreted. They cannot be changed into anything else. Minerals cannot be destroyed by heat, air, acid, or mixing. Compared to other nutrients such as protein, carbohydrates and fat, vitamins and minerals are present in food in tiny quantities. This is why vitamins and minerals are called micronutrients, because we consume them only in small amounts. Each of the vitamins and minerals known today has specific functions in the body, which makes them unique and irreplaceable. No single food contains the full range of vitamins and minerals, and inadequate nutrient intake results in deficiencies. A variety of foods is therefore vital to meet the body’s vitamin and mineral requirements. Of the known vitamins, four are fat-soluble. This means that fat or oil must be consumed for the vitamins to be absorbed by the body. These fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E and K. The others are water-soluble: these are vitamin C and the B-complex, consisting of vitamins B1, B2, B6, B12, niacin, folic acid, biotin, pantothenic acid and choline.

Minerals are divided into two categories: macrominerals and trace minerals/trace elements. As implied by their name, macrominerals are required by the body in larger quantities (more than 100 mg daily) than trace elements. To meet our requirements for some macrominerals we need to consume sufficient and varied food.

 

Vitamins and associated body functions

Vitamin A

(Eyes, immune system, skin, genes, growth)

Retinol | Carotenoids

Vitamin A plays a central role in our vision, skin, genes, growth, and immune system. It is especially important during the early stages of pregnancy in supporting the developing embryo. Infections andfevers increase the requirement for vitamin A.Three different forms of vitamin A are active in the body: retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid. These

are known as retinoids. Foods derived from plants provide carotenoids, some of which have vitaminA activity. The body can convert carotenoids like B-carotene, α-carotene and B-cryptoxanthin intovitamin A. The conversion rates from dietary carotene sources to vitamin A are 12:1 for β-carotene and 24: 1 for B-cryptoxanthin.

 The primary sources of vitamin A

Retinol is found in liver, egg yolk, butter, whole milk, and cheese. Carotenoids are found in orange-flesh sweet potatoes, orange-flesh fruits (i.e., melon, mangoes, and persimmons), green leafyvegetables (i.e., spinach, broccoli), carrots, pumpkins, and red palm oil.

 Excess intake of vitamin A

About 90% of vitamin A is stored in the liver. Vegetarians can meet their vitamin A requirements with sufficient intakes of deeply colored fruits and vegetables, with fortified foods, or both.Vitamin A deficiency is a major problem when diets consist of starchy staples, which are not good

sources of retinol or β-carotene, and when the consumption of deeply coloured fruits and vegetables, animal-source foods, or fortified foods is low. Vitamin A plays a role in mobilizing iron from liver stores, so vitamin A deficiency may also compromise iron status.

  Vitamin D

(Skin (formed in), intestines, kidneys, bones)

 

Calciferol

With the help of sunlight, vitamin D is synthesized by the body from a precursor derived from cholesterol. Vitamin D is therefore not an essential micronutrient, given the right season and enoughtime in the sun. The active from of vitamin D is actually a hormone that targets organs – most notablythe intestines, kidneys, and bones. In the intestine, vitamin D is involved in the absorption of calciumand phosphorus. In the bone, it assists in the absorption of calcium and phosphorus, helping bones grow denser and stronger as they absorb and deposit these minerals.

The primary sources of vitamin D

Sunlight – exposure to ultraviolet B (UVB) rays is necessary for the body to synthesize vitamin D from the precursor in the skin.There are a few foods that are natural sources of vitamin D. These sources are oily fish, egg yolk, veal, beef, and mushrooms.

 Excess intake of vitamin D

Inadequate exposure to sunlight is the primary risk factor for poor vitamin D status. The use of sunscreen, higher levels of melanin in skin (i.e., dark skin), skin coverings (clothes, veils), and time ofday are factors that decrease exposure to UVB rays.A vitamin D deficiency creates a calcium deficiency, with significant consequences to bone health. Among children and adolescents, it may cause rickets and adversely affect peak bone mass. In adults, vitamin D deficiency increases the risk of osteomalacia and osteoporosis.

Vitamin E

(Antioxidant, blood cells, stored in liver)

A-Tocopherol

The most active form of vitamin E is α-tocopherol, which acts as an antioxidant (i.e., stops the chain reaction of free radicals producing more free radicals). Vitamin E protects cell membranes, proteins,and DNA from oxidation and thereby contributes to cellular health. It prevents oxidation of the  polyunsaturated fatty acids and lipids in the cells. Vitamin E is stored in the liver and is safe even athigh intakes.

The primary sources of vitamin E

Vitamin E in the α-tocopherol form is found in edible vegetable oils, especially wheat germ, and sunflower and rapeseed oil. Other good sources of vitamin E are leafy green vegetables (i.e., spinach,chard), nuts (almonds, peanuts) and nut spreads, avocados, sunflower seeds, mango and kiwifruit.

 Excess intake of vitamin E

Individuals whose diets consist mostly of starchy staples – with inconsistent intake of edible oils or other vegetable sources of vitamin E – are at a higher risk of inadequate vitamin E intake. Vitamin Edeficiency leads to red blood cell breakage and nerve damage.Excessive intake of vitamin E from food is very rare.

Vitamin K

(Blood (clotting)

Phylloquinone | Menaquinones

Vitamin K acts primarily in blood clotting, where its presence can make the difference between life and death. More than a dozen different proteins and the mineral calcium are involved in making a blood clot. Vitamin K is essential for the activation of several of these proteins. When any of the blood clotting factors is lacking, hemorrhagic disease (uncontrolled bleeding) results. Vitamin K also participates in the metabolism of bone proteins, most notably osteocalcin. Without vitamin K, osteocalcin cannot bind to the minerals that normally form bones, resulting in poor bone mineralization. Vitamin K is stored in the liver.

The primary sources of vitamin K

Vitamin K is found in plant foods as phylloquinone (K1). Bacteria in the lower intestine can synthesize vitamin K as menaquinone (K2), which is absorbed by the body. Sources of phylloquinone are greenleafy vegetables (i.e., parsley, spinach, collard greens, and salad greens), cabbage, and vegetables oils(soybean, canola, olive). Menaquinones are also found in fermented foods such as fermented cheese,curds, and natto (fermented soybeans).

Excess intake of vitamin K

Vitamin K is poorly transferred via the placenta and is not found in significant quantities in breast milk, so newborn infants are especially at risk for bleeding. This innate vitamin K deficiency is treated with intramuscular injection or oral administration of phylloquinone. Supplementation with vitamin K has been found to be beneficial for improving bone density among adults with osteoporosis because it drives synthesis of a special protein called matrix Gla protein.

Vitamin B1

(Energy metabolism, nerve and muscle activity)

 Thiamin

Thiamin is a sulfur-containing vitamin that participates in energy metabolism, converting carbohydrates, lipids and proteins into energy. Thiamin also plays a key role in nerve and muscle activity.

The primary sources of vitamin 

B1Offal (liver, kidneys, heart), fish, meat (pork), whole grain cereals, leafy green vegetables, asparagus,eggplant, fruits , legumes (beans and lentils), nuts, soymilk, squash, brewer’s yeast.

Excess intake of vitamin B1

People who consume diets consisting of primarily refined grains (mostly milled flours and polished rice) are at risk for thiamin deficiency. The risk of inadequacy is less when food manufacturers fortifyrefined grains with vitamin B1.Clinical vitamin B1 deficiency is called beriberi, a condition which still occurs in South-East Asia. In beriberi, there is damage to the nervous system characterized by muscle weakness in the armsand legs, or damage to the cardiovascular system which is characterized by dilated blood vessels,causing the heart to work harder and the kidneys to retain salt and water, resulting in edema.No adverse effects have been associated with excessive thiamin intakes.

  Vitamin B2

(Energy metabolism, growth and reproduction, vision)

 Riboflavin

Vitamin B2 participates in oxidation-reduction reactions, by accepting and then donating two hydrogen molecules, which are necessary for releasing energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins.Vitamin B2 stimulates growth and reproduction, plays a role in vision, and in the conversion of vitamins B6, folic acid, and niacin into their active coenzyme forms.

The primary sources of vitamin B2

Vitamin B2 is found in offal (liver, kidneys, heart), eggs, meat, milk, yogurt, cheeses, whole grain cereals, dark green leafy vegetables, and brewer’s yeast.

Excess intake of vitamin B2

Individuals whose food intake relies primarily on refined cereals, the elderly, chronic dieters, and individuals who exclude milk products from their diet are at risk for inadequate intakes. Vitamin B2 requirements are increased during periods of strong growth, such as in pregnancy and lactation.Vitamin B2 deficiency co-occurs with other nutrient deficiencies and it may precipitate deficiencies in vitamin B6 and niacin. People with cardiovascular disease, diabetes or cancer are at risk for vitamin B2 deficiency.

Vitamin B3

(Energy metabolism, neurological processes)

 Niacin

Niacin acts as coenzyme in energy-transfer reactions, especially the metabolism of glucose, fat, and alcohol. Niacin is similar to the riboflavin coenzymes in that it carries hydrogen molecules (and their electrons) during metabolic reactions. It also protects against neurological degeneration. Niacinis unique in that it can also be synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan. It occurs in two forms: niacinamide and nicotinic acid.

The primary sources of vitamin B3

Primary sources are offal (liver), fish, meat, milk, eggs, whole grain cereals, legumes,fruit (avocados, figs, dates, prunes), and nuts.

 Excess intake of vitamin B3

Risk of excessive intake is unlikely if niacin is consumed from food sources. However consumption of niacin in the form of nicotinic acid from multiple sources at high levels, including dietary supplements, pharmaceutical doses, and fortified foods, may result in adverse effects such as flushing,nausea and vomiting, liver toxicity, blurred vision and impaired glucose tolerance.

  Vitamin B5

(Skin and hair, wound healing, blood lipid profile)

 Pantothenic Acid

Vitamin B5 is part of the structure of coenzyme A, the “crossroads” compound in several metabolic pathways, and is involved in more than 100 different steps in the synthesis of lipids, neurotransmitters,steroid hormones, and hemoglobin. Vitamin B5 is important for maintenance and repair of tissues andcells of the skin and hair, helps in healing of wounds and lesions, and pantethine, which is a form of vitamin B5, normalizes blood lipid profiles.

The primary sources of vitamin B5

Vitamin B5 is found in offal (liver, kidneys), meat (chicken, beef), egg yolk, milk, fish, whole grain cereals, potatoes, tomatoes, broccoli, mushrooms.Other: synthesized by intestinal microorganisms but the contribution of this to nutrient status is unknown.

Excess intake of vitamin B5

Vitamin B5 deficiency is very rare and symptoms involve a general failure of all the body’s systems. Symptoms include fatigue, nausea, vomiting, headaches, tingling sensations (“burning feet” syndrome).No adverse effects have been reported with high intakes of vitamin B5.

  Vitamin B6

(Nerve activity, blood formation, DNA)

 Pyridoxine

Vitamin B6 is required for the majority of biological reactions (i.e., amino acid metabolism, neurotransmitter synthesis, red blood cell formation). It occurs in three forms: pyridoxal, pyridoxine, andpyridoxamine. All can be converted to the coenzyme PLP (pyridoxal phosphate), that transfers aminogroups from an amino acid to make nonessential amino acids, an action that is valuable in protein andurea metabolism. The conversions of the amino acid tryptophan to niacin or to the neurotransmitterserotonin also depend on PLP. In addition, PLP participates in the synthesis of the heme compound in hemoglobin, of nucleic acids in DNA and of lecithin, a fatty compound (phospholipid) that providesstructures to our cells. Vitamin B6 is stored in muscle tissue.

The primary sources of vitamin B6

There are many good sources of vitamin B6, including chicken, liver (cattle, pig), fish (salmon, tuna).Nuts (walnut, peanut), chickpeas, maize and whole grain cereals, and vegetables (especially green leafy vegetables), bananas, potatoes and other starchy vegetables are also good sources.

Excess intake of vitamin B6

Deficiency of vitamin B6 alone is uncommon; usually it occurs in combination with a deficit in other B-vitamins. Individuals at risk for poor intakes are alcoholics and those taking tuberculosismedication. Signs of vitamin B6 deficiency include microcytic anemia due to inadequatesynthesis of hemoglobin, depression, nerve problems, and irritability.

No adverse events have been observed with high intakes of vitamin B6 (from food or supplements).

 

 

             Vitamin B7

(Hair, nails, skin)

 Biotin | Vitamin H

Biotin plays an important role in metabolism as a coenzyme that transfers carbon dioxide. This role is critical in the breakdown of food (carbohydrates, fats and proteins) into energy. Biotin is involved in many cellular reactions, particularly in fat and protein metabolism of hair roots, finger nails, and skin.

The primary sources of vitamin B7

Eggs, milk, vegetables, cereals, nuts (almonds, walnuts, peanuts), liver, kidney, yeast, soybeans. Other: synthesized by intestinal bacteria.

Excess intake of vitamin B7

Experts have yet to quantify the amount of biotin in natural foods. Deficiency due to lack of dietary intake is rare in healthy populations. Symptoms of deficiency include general fatigue, nausea,neurological problems, poor skin and hair quality. No adverse effects have been reported with excessive intakes of biotin.

 

          Vitamin B9

(DNA synthesis)

Folate

Folate refers to the naturally occurring forms (pteroylglutamic acid) as well as the forms found in fortified foods and supplements (folic acid). Folic acid is the most stable form of folate. The primary functionof folate is as a coenzyme, THF (tetrahydrofolate), that transfers single-carbon compounds for DNAsynthesis and repair and in energy and amino acid metabolism. Folate and vitamin B12 are interconnectedin their capacity to donate and receive these single-carbon compounds, which are called methylgroups. For example, THF with a methyl group donates its carbon compound to vitamin B12. This actiontransforms vitamin B12 into an active coenzyme, which will in turn catalyze the conversion of homocysteineto methionine. Without vitamin B12, folate in its methyl form becomes trapped inside cells,unavailable to support cell growth. Folate is essential for brain development and function.

The primary sources of folate

Dark green leafy vegetables, beans, lentils, asparagus, wheat germ, yeast, peanuts, oranges, strawberries.

 Excess intake of folate

Individuals with diets that lack sufficient quantity and variety of green leafy vegetables and legumes are at risk for inadequate folate intake. Folate requirements are increased during pregnancy, especially

in the first couple of weeks of gestation. Folate deficiency is highly associated with the risk for neural tube defects in the growing fetus. Thus, women of child-bearing age and pregnant women are advised to meet folate requirements using a combination of natural foods (folate forms) and fortified foods or supplements (folic acid). In many western countries, governments have mandated flours to be fortified with folate.

        Vitamin B12

(Nerve activity, neurotransmitters)

Cobalamin

Vitamin B12 functions as a coenzyme in the conversion of homocysteine to methionine, in the metabolism of fatty acids and amino acids, and in the production of neurotransmitters. It also maintains a special lining that surrounds and protects nerve fibers, and bone cell activity depends

on vitamin B12. Folate and vitamin B12 are closely related. When folate gives up its methyl group to B12,it activates this vitamin.

The primary sources of vitamin B12

Vitamin B12 is found only in foods of animal origin, except where plant-based foods have been fortified.Rich sources of vitamin B12 include shellfish, liver, game meat (venison and rabbit), some fish (herring, sardines, salmon, trout), milk and milk products.

Excess intake of vitamin B12

About 10–30% of older adults are estimated to have chronic inflammation of the stomach, a condition that impairs the absorption of vitamin B12. It is advised that older adults consume fortified foods or supplements to meet their vitamin B12 requirements. Vegans (individuals who do not consume animal-source foods), who do not take fortified foods or supplements, will develop vitamin B12 deficiency. However, it can take several years to develop a vitamin B12 deficiency because the body recycles much of its vitamin B12 by reabsorbing it over and over again. Infants born to vegan mothers are also at risk for deficiency if their mother’s vitamin B12 status was low during pregnancy.

Vitamin B12 requirements are increased for individuals who are HIV-positive with chronic diarrhea.

 

         Vitamin C

(Antioxidant, iron absorption, immune system)

Ascorbic Acid

Vitamin C parts company with the B-vitamins in its mode of action. It acts as an antioxidant or as a cofactor, helping a specific enzyme perform its job. High levels of vitamin C are found in pituitary andadrenal glands, eyes, white blood cells, and the brain. Vitamin C has multiple roles - in the synthesis of collagen, absorption of iron, free radical scavenging, and defense against infections and inflammation

The primary sources of vitamin C

Fruits (especially citrus fruits), cabbage-type vegetables, green leafy vegetables, lettuce, tomatoes, potatoes, and liver (ox /calf).

Excess intake of vitamin C

Individuals who do not consume sufficient quantities of fruits and vegetables are at risk for inadequate intakes of vitamin C. Because smoking generates free radicals, individuals who smoke haveelevated requirements for vitamin C. Vitamin C deficiency can cause scurvy; signs of scurvy are bleeding gums, small hemorrhages below the skin, fatigue, loss of appetite and weight, and lowered resistance to infections.

       Choline

(Nerve activity, gene expression)

Strictly speaking, choline is not a vitamin, but an essential nutrient that is often grouped under the B-vitamins. Although the body can make choline, dietary intake of choline is necessary to meetthe body’s needs for this nutrient. Choline also acts as a methyl donor. Choline has several functions,including fat and cholesterol metabolism, cell structure and cell integrity, cellular signaling, neurotransmission,and gene expression. In pregnancy, choline is important for brain development ofthe growing fetus.

The primary sources of choline

Choline can be found in many foods, mainly in milk, eggs and peanuts. It is also part of lecithin, which is used as an emulsifier in food processing.

Excess intake of choline

Choline and folate interact at the level where homocysteine is converted to methionine. If the metabolism of one of these methyl donors is disturbed, it disrupts the metabolism of choline. Excess intake of choline is rare but can result in a fishy body odor, vomiting, salivation, hypotension and liver toxicity.

 

Minerals and associated body functions

  Calcium (Ca)

(Bones and teeth)

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body. Ninety-nine percent of the body’s calcium is in the bones and teeth. Calcium is an integral part of bone structure, necessary to create a rigid frame to hold the body upright and for movement. Calcium in the bones also serves as a bank from which the body can withdraw calcium to compensate for low intakes. The remaining 1% of the body’s calcium is in the body fluids, where it helps regulate blood pressure and muscle movement.The body needs calcium for healthy bones. Bones are gaining and losing minerals continuously in an ongoing process of remodeling. Calcium forms crystals on a matrix of the protein collagen. This process is called mineralization. During mineralization, as the crystals become denser, they give strength and rigidity to the bones. Most people achieve a peak bone mass by their late 20s, and dense bones best protect against age-related bone loss and fractures. Calcium is important at all life stages, and most especially during periods of linear growth, infancy, childhood and puberty, as well as pregnancy and lactation.Calcium in the blood helps to maintain normal blood pressure. Calcium is also involved in the regulation of muscle contraction, transmission of nerve impulses, secretion of hormones and activation of some enzyme reactions. 

The primary sources of calcium

Milk and milk products, small fish (with bones), calcium-set tofu (bean curd), and legumes, spinach, Chinese cabbage, kale, broccoli.

 Excess intake of calcium

Because calcium is critical to muscle contraction and nerve impulses, the body tightly regulates blood calcium levels. If calcium intake is low, the body will draw on calcium in the bones. Poor chronic intake in calcium results in osteomalacia, in which bones become weak owing to lack of calcium.Insufficient calcium in bones can also result from an inadequate supply of vitamin D, which is essential for absorption of calcium and its deposition in the bones. Thus, adequate calcium and vitamin D intake is vital for bone integrity and for bone growth.

Magnesium (Mg)

(Bones, energy metabolism)

More than half the body’s magnesium is found in the bones, where it plays an important role in development and maintenance of bone. Much of the rest of the mineral is found in the muscles and soft tissues, with only 1% in the extracellular fluid. Bone magnesium serves as a reservoir for magnesium to ensure normal magnesium blood concentrations.

Magnesium is involved in more than 300 essential metabolic reactions such as synthesis of our genetic material (DNA/RNA) and proteins, in cell growth and reproduction, and in energy production and storage. Magnesium is important for the formation of the body’s main energy compoundadenosine triphosphate (ATP). Our cells need ATP for all their processes.

The primary sources of magnesium

Nuts, legumes, whole grains, dark green vegetables, and seafood.

Excess intake of magnesium

Magnesium deficiency in healthy individuals who are consuming a balanced diet is quite rare because magnesium is abundant in both plant and animal foods and the kidneys are able to limit urinary excretion of magnesium when intake is low. Severe magnesium deficiency (hypomagnesemia)can impede vitamin D and calcium homeostasis. Certain individuals are more susceptible to magnesiumdeficiency, especially those with gastrointestinal or renal disorders, those suffering from chronicalcoholism, and older people. Magnesium toxicity is rare. The upper limit of magnesium can only be exceeded with non-food sources such as supplements or magnesium salts.

   Phosphorus (P)

(Bones, teeth, energy metabolism, genes)

About 85% of phosphorus in the body is combined with calcium in the bones and teeth. In all body cells, phosphorus is part of a major buffer system (phosphoric acid and its salts). Phosphorus is also part of DNA and RNA, which are essential components of all cells. Phosphorus assists in energy metabolism in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The ATP molecule uses three phosphate groups to do its work. Many enzymes and the B-vitamins become active only when a phosphate group is attached.

Lipids found in the cell walls also use phosphorus. These phospholipids give cells their fluid structure, which is necessary for the transport of compounds into and out of cells.

The primary sources of phosphorus

Phosphorus is found naturally in many foods. Animal-source foods such as meat, fish, poultry, eggs, and milk are excellent sources, as are sunflower seeds.

Excess intake of phosphorus

Because phosphorus is so widespread in food, dietary phosphorus deficiency is seen mostly in cases of malnutrition, anorexic individuals, or alcoholics. Symptoms of phosphorus deficiency are poor appetite,anxiety, and irritability. In children, phosphorus deficiency may manifest as decreased growth and poor bone and tooth development.

  Potassium (K)

(Nerve and muscle activity, blood pressure)

Potassium is the body’s principal positively charged ion (cation) inside our cells. Its major role is to keep us alive. Potassium is essential for maintenance of normal fluid and electrolyte balance, enzymereactions, cell integrity, and muscle contraction. Potassium and sodium are pumped across the cell membrane, a process that drives nerve impulse transmission.The potassium found in natural, unprocessed foods is often linked to an organic anion(e.g. citrate). Organic anions play an important role in buffering the acids produced by the body in metabolizing meats or protein-rich foods. These acids can demineralize the bone and increase the risk of kidney stones.

The primary sources of potassium

Fruits and vegetables, especially vine fruits (tomato, cucumber, zucchini, eggplant, pumpkin), leafy greens and root vegetables, grains, meat, legumes.

Excess intake of potassium

Moderate potassium deficiency is linked to increases in blood pressure, increased risk of kidney stones, bone demineralization, and stroke. Certain types of diuretics (e.g., thiazide diuretics orfurosemide), alcoholism, severe vomiting or diarrhea, overuse or abuse of laxatives, anorexia nervosaor bulimia, magnesium depletion, and congestive heart failure (CHF) are associated with a higher risk for potassium deficiency.

    Chromium (Cr)

(Metabolizing starches and fat, insulin activity)

Chromium is an essential mineral that participates in the metabolism of glucose and fats. Like iron, chromium assumes different charges. Cr3+ is the most stable form and is commonly found in foods; other Cr charges, like Cr6+, are toxic. Chromium helps maintain blood glucose levels by enhancing the activity of the hormone insulin.

The primary sources of chromium

Chromium is found in egg yolk, whole grains, high-bran cereals, green beans, broccoli, nuts, and brewer’s yeast. Diets rich in simple sugars may actually increase urinary excretion of chromium due to enhanced insulin secretion.

Excess intake of chromium

Chromium deficiency in humans is very rare. Cases of chromium deficiency have been described in a few patients on long-term intravenous feeding who did not receive supplemental chromium in their intravenous solutions.

      Copper (Cu)

(Energy metabolism, blood formation)

Copper is a constituent of several enzymes. Copper-dependent enzymes transport iron and load it into hemoglobin, a protein that carries oxygen through the blood. Copper-dependent enzymes release energy from glucose; provide a natural defense against free radicals that damage the body; manufacture collagen (required by skin and bone); inactivate histamine, which is responsible for allergic reactions; and degrade dopamine into a neurotransmitter so cells can “talk” to each other.

The primary sources of copper

Seafood, nuts, whole grains, seeds and legumes, and organ meats (offal).

Excess intake of copper

Copper deficiency in healthy humans is very rare. However, those at risk for copper deficiency are individuals with a rare genetic disorder, Menke’s disease, and children who are malnourished, those with prolonged diarrhea, or who are fed only cow’s milk. Because copper is needed to transport iron,clinical signs of copper deficiency include anemia. Other clinical signs are osteoporosis and other abnormalities of bone development, loss of pigmentation, neurological symptoms, and impaired growth. Excessive intakes of copper from foods are unlikely.

Fluoride (Fluorine, F)

(Teeth and bones)

Fluoride (Fluorine)

Fluoride is present in soils, water supplies, plants and animals. Fluoride is critical for healthy teeth and bones. Only a trace of fluoride is found in the body, but even at these tiny amounts, the crystalline deposits of fluoride result in larger and stronger bones and makes teeth more resistant to decay.

The primary sources of fluoride

Drinking water (if fluoride-containing or fluoridated), tea, seafood (especially if eaten with bones).

Excess intake of fluoride

In humans, the only clear effect of inadequate fluoride intake is an increased risk of dental caries (tooth decay) for individuals of all ages. Too much fluoride can damage the teeth, causing fluorosis. Teeth develop small white specks and in severe cases the enamel becomes pitted and permanently stained. Fluorosis only occurs during tooth development and cannot be reversed, making its prevention a high priorit.

  Iodine (I)

(Thyroid function)

Traces of the iodine ion (called iodide) are indispensable to life. Iodide is an integral part of the thyroid hormones that regulate body temperature, metabolic rate, reproduction, growth, blood cell production,nerve and muscle function and more. By controlling the rate at which the cells use oxygen,these hormones influence the amount of energy released when the body is at total rest.Most (70-80%) of the body’s iodine is found in the thyroid.

The primary sources of iodine

Most foods have low iodine content. Iodized salt, seafood, plants grown in iodine-rich soil and animals fed those plants or feed containing iodine are good sources. Some foods may be sources of iodine if iodized salt is used in their preparation (e.g. bread).

Excess intake of iodine

Iodine deficiency has adverse effects at all stages of development but is most damaging to the developing brain. In addition to regulating many aspects of growth and development, thyroid hormoneis important for myelination of the nerves, which is most active before and shortly after birth. Thus during pregnancy, diets deficient in iodine may result in higher risk for mental retardation. Thyroid enlargement, or goiter, is one of the most visible signs of iodine deficiency.

 Iron (Fe)

(Blood production)

Iron’s main role is to accept, carry and release oxygen. Most of the body’s iron is found in two oxygen-carrying proteins – hemoglobin, a protein found in red blood cells, and myoglobin, which is found in the muscle cells. Iron also serves as a cofactor to enzymes in oxidation/reduction reactions(i.e., accepts or donates electrons). These reactions are vital to cells’ energy metabolism.Iron requirements fluctuate throughout the life course. Iron needs increase during menstruation,pregnancy, and periods of rapid growth such as early childhood and adolescence.

The primary sources of iron

Red meats, fish, poultry, shellfish, eggs, legumes, grains, dried fruits.

Excess intake of iron

A lack of dietary iron depletes iron stores in the liver, spleen and bone marrow. Severe depletion or exhaustion of iron stores can lead to iron deficiency anemia. Certain life-stages require greater iron intake and if these are not met, the risk for iron deficiency is increased. For example, pregnancy demands additional iron to support the added blood volume, growth of the fetus and blood loss during childbirth.Infants and young children need extra iron to support their rapid growth and brain development.Because breast milk is low in iron, infants exclusively fed breastmilk may also be at risk for iron deficiency. Similarly, the rapid growth of adolescence also demands extra iron. Because of iron’s role in energy metabolism, depletion of body iron stores may result in reductions of the available energy in the cell. The physical signs of iron deficiency include fatigue, weakness, headaches, apathy, susceptibility

to infections, and poor resistance to cold temperatures.

Selenium (Se)

(Antioxidant)

Selenium is one of the body’s antioxidant nutrients, protecting the body against oxidative stress. Oxidative stress is a natural by-product of the body’s metabolism. Selenium also regulates thyroid hormone and oxidative reduction reactions of vitamin C. Selenium, along with vitamin E, works to reduce the free radicals that are generated through cellular processes.

The primary sources of selenium

Selenium is found in seafood, meat, whole grains, dairy, fruits, and vegetables. The selenium content in plant food varies according to selenium soil content. Animal-source foods are reliable sources of selenium because selenium is required by animals and thus added to their feed.

Excess intake of selenium

Overt selenium deficiency is very rare. Some endemic diseases in parts of Russia and China such as Keshan and Kashin-Beck disease are related to low selenium intakes. Individuals at risk for lows elenium intakes are vegans who eat foods grown in low-selenium areas. Selenium is toxic in high doses and causes loss and brittleness of hair and nails, garlic breath odor and nervous system abnormalities.

 Zinc (Zn)

(Gene expression, immune function)

Almost all cells contain zinc and it is a vital nutrient for growth and development. The highest concentrations are found in muscle and bone. The body tightly regulates zinc levels. Stress and infections cause plasma zinc levels to fall.

Zinc participates in a variety of catalytic, regulatory, and structural functions. Zinc is a catalyst for about 100 enzymes. It is important in the structure of cell transport proteins such as vitamins A and D. Zinc regulates gene expression; stabilizes cell membranes, helping to strengthen their defense against oxidative stress; assists in immune function; participates in the synthesis, storage, and release of insulin; interacts with platelets in blood clotting; and influences thyroid hormone function. It is necessary for visual pigments; normal taste perception; wound healing; sperm production;fetal development; and behavior and learning performance.

The primary sources of zinc

Meats, some shellfish, legumes, whole grains, and some fortified cereals.

 

Excess intake of zinc

Individuals consuming unprocessed or minimally processed diets consisting of unrefined whole grains or unleavened whole bread and little animal-source foods are at greater risk for zinc deficiency. Zinc needs are higher in periods of growth and development, such as infancy, childhood,pregnancy and lactation. Zinc deficiency can occur even with only modest restrictions to zinc intake.Impaired growth velocity is the main clinical feature of zinc deficiency. Immune system functions and pregnancy outcomes improve with zinc supplementation. For example, zinc is often given as an adjunct therapy for diarrhea.